Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

Norway is a remarkably varied country, stretching from the temperate south to high mountains and Arctic islands, with a long and highly indented coastline dotted with islands and skerries. Although population density is low, many species and habitat types are under threat in Norway.

Norway's scenery is wild and dramatic. You can find coniferous and broad-leaved forest, lakes and waterfalls, steep crags and flat farmland in the same small area. Growing conditions vary widely with altitude and between north- and south-facing mountainsides. Photo: BlondieISFC, Flickr

People crossing the ridge Besseggen in the Jotunheimen mountains. This is one of the most popular routes in Norway's mountains, offering spectacular views and dramatic scenery. Many people start the trip by taking the boat (just visible in the photo) across lake Gjende. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no

The wood warbler (Phylloscopus sibilatrix) is characteristic of rich broad-leaved forests. It is easily recognised by its trilling song, which sounds like a coin spinning on a table. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no

The fungus Cortinarius caesiocortinatus has a symbiotic relationship with lime, hazel and probably oak. It is found in calcareous lime forest and wooded pastures dotted with hazel and oak on calcareous soils. It is one of several specialised fungi found in calcareous lime forest. Photo: Sigve Reiso, Naturarkivet.no

Rich biodiversity in a cold climate

Norway cannot compete with areas as rich as tropical rain forests for sheer numbers of species. However, the rugged topography and geological diversity, combined with the many ways people have used and formed Norwegian landscapes through history, make for a highly varied natural environment.

Geological forces have left their mark on the Norwegian landscape. Ice ages, glacial rebound and erosion have created jagged mountains, gentle U-shaped valleys, canyons, deep fjords, moraines and lakes. The warm water carried northwards by the Gulf Stream gives Norway a much milder climate than would otherwise be expected so far north.

The result is a remarkably wide range of landscapes, ecosystems and habitats in a limited area, and some of Europe's most spectacular mountain and coastal scenery.

Mountain and forest cover much of the country

About one third of mainland Norway is forest-covered, and about 60 % of the species so far recorded in Norway are associated with forests. Many other species are dependent on special conditions that are only to be found in cultural landscapes or in wetlands such as peat bogs. Through history, people have made use of most of mainland Norway for farming, hunting and other activities that still set their mark on the vegetation and species diversity today.

Roughly half of mainland Norway consists of mountains, where plants and animals are adapted to life in a cold and harsh environment. Other species and ecosystems are found in freshwater and marine environments, and in Norway's Arctic areas north of the mainland.

Vital for people's livelihoods and well-being

The natural environment and biodiversity are intrinsically valuable. In addition, they are of practical value to people, supplying us with vital goods such as food, clothing, building materials, medicines and fuel. Healthy ecosystems also provide ecosystem services by removing pollutants from air and water and storing the greenhouse gas CO2. Pollination services are vital for food production. Other services include natural protection against storm and flood damage. Well-functioning ecosystems thus play an important role both in mitigating climate change and in adaptation, by protecting us against the impacts of climate change.

It is also recognised that people need opportunities for recreation and relaxation outdoors, and a lack of access to the natural environment can actually have a negative impact on people's health.

Despite the fact that life on earth could not exist without healthy ecosystems, it is very difficult to put a monetary value on most ecosystem services. As a result, vital functions of the natural environment are liable to be overlooked or ignored when people make decisions that may have a profound effect on biodiversity and landscapes.

Probably 55 000 species in Norway

Species diversity

  • The Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre estimates that there are around 55 000 species in Norway
  • So far, about 44 000 species have been identified, but Red List assessments have only been carried out for about half of these, just over 20 000 species
  • Globally, just under two million species have been described, but it is believed that there may in fact be as many as 13–14 million different species on Earth

In 2011, all the available information on species in Norway was reviewed. At that stage, about 41 000 species had been recorded in Norway. Since then, more species have been discovered through a project called the Norwegian taxonomy initiative, and the total number of species recorded in Norway has risen to about 44 000. The real number, including those that have not yet been identified, is probably around 55 000.

There are still many organisms we know little about. In many cases, we lack information about the distribution of species and their function in the ecosystems where they live.

Complex ecological interactions

Species cannot be considered separately from the habitats where they live. If habitats are destroyed, species will be lost – and on the other hand, habitats change if species become extinct or their distribution shifts. Such changes reflect the complex and intricate ecological interactions in ecosystems. There are still major gaps in our knowledge about ecosystems, and we cannot be sure of the consequences of change. When one species disappears from an area, others may follow, or the whole ecological balance may be disrupted.

The map shows records of threatened species and selected habitat types in the Rennesøy area near Stavanger. You can zoom in or out to explore further.

Land-use change the most important driver of biodiversity loss

Threats to biodiversity

The five major threats to biodiversity globally are generally agreed to be land conversion and land use change, climate change, invasive alien species, over-exploitation and pollution.

Of these, land conversion and land use change is the most important pressure on threatened species and habitat types in Norway.

In Norway, land-use change resulting in habitat alteration and degradation is considered to be the most important cause of the loss of biodiversity. Other important drivers of biodiversity loss are pollution, over-exploitation, invasive alien species and climate change.

Land use and land-use change alters habitats in many ways, for example through deforestation, drainage, overgrowing of open areas, farming and the construction of buildings and infrastructure, including dams. Different forms of land-use change are considered to be the most important threat to 87 % of the species classified as threatened in Norway.

Climate change a growing threat

Climate change is putting pressure on Norwegian ecosystems, and its impacts are becoming apparent in a number of ways. These impacts are expected to become more severe as the climate changes further. Animals and plants that live in high mountain and Arctic areas are particularly vulnerable. The 2010 Red List for Species describes climate change as the most important factor for threatened and near-threatened species in Svalbard.

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A growing population using more resources

People have harvested from nature and exploited natural resources for centuries, and species have become extinct throughout history. However, we are now using resources far more intensively, and the rate of extinction is far higher. Population growth, rising consumption and our use of technology are putting more and more pressure on the environment. If we put short-term economic interests first, we often overexploit natural resources.

Some areas and habitat types need active management to maintain ecosystems and sustain species diversity. This is particularly true of traditional agricultural landscapes, which are liable to become overgrown with scrub and trees if they are not managed. Species that prefer open landscapes are then likely to disappear. Some species that thrive in these areas, such as bees and bumble bees, also play an important role in natural ecosystems.

National law and international agreements

In Norway, the Nature Diversity Act is the most important piece of environmental legislation. It covers the conservation of biological, landscape and geological diversity. It applies to all sectors that are responsible for managing biodiversity and the environment, or that take decisions that may have an impact on biodiversity. This means that even if activities are mainly governed by other legislation, decisions must also be based on the principles of the Nature Diversity Act.

The Act includes provisions on species management, protected areas, alien organisms, selected habitat types, and priority species and their habitats.

Other Norwegian legislation, such as the Wildlife Act and the Salmonids and Freshwater Fish Act, is also designed to safeguard biodiversity.

People live in the most productive areas

The parts of Norway that originally supported the highest biodiversity are also the most densely populated areas. The local authorities play a very important part in deciding which areas are to be used for which purposes. The Planning and Building Act is therefore another vital instrument for biodiversity conservation in Norway.

Ways of avoiding further losses of biodiversity include restricting the development of areas of natural habitat, ensuring that land use patterns are sustainable, and making better and more efficient use of existing infrastructure and built-up areas.

International obligations

Norway has ratified a number of environmental agreements that set out obligations for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is the agreement with the most wide-ranging scope and objectives.

This is a global agreement to promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. It entered into force in 1993, and nearly all the world's countries are parties to it (195 countries and the EU). They have undertaken to develop national strategies and action plans to implement the convention at national level, and are required to submit regular reports on what they are doing.

Like all other parties to the Convention, Norway is required to:

  • establish protected areas;
  • take steps to eradicate, contain and control invasive alien species;
  • safeguard threatened species;
  • promote cooperation with other countries on biodiversity conservation.

In Norway, the Ministry of Climate and Environment is responsible for following up the convention, and is assisted in an advisory capacity by the Norwegian Environment Agency. The Agency has a special responsibility for Norway's work within the Convention's Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA).

1. Species in Norway

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

About 44 000 species have been registered as living in the wild in Norway, but the real figure is probably closer to 55 000, according to the Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre. Our knowledge of their population status varies widely; for some species groups, reliable figures are available, whereas relatively little is known about others, for example various invertebrate groups.

Wolves have been protected in Norway since 1973, but they are still classified as critically endangered. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no
Ospreys are summer visitors in Norway, generally arriving in April. Like other birds of prey, ospreys are protected. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no
The Pacific oyster is native to the Pacific coast of Asia, but has been deliberately introduced to other parts of the world for commercial farming. Pacific oysters settle at high densities, forming oyster beds that can transform an ecosystem. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no
The lesser white-fronted goose is endangered throughout its range and is classified as critically endangered in the Norwegian Red List. It has also been designated as a priority species under the Nature Diversity Act. Photo: Wikimedia Commons
A hooded seal. This is one of the largest seal species in the North Atlantic, and also the one that dives deepest, to more than 1000 metres. It is estimated that more than half the European population of hooded seals lives in Norwegian waters, giving us a special responsibility for managing the species. Photo: Michael Poltermann

The Norwegian Red List for Species (2015) lists 2355 species as threatened. Nevertheless, there are still serious gaps in our knowledge, and a great deal of uncertainty about the true number of species in Norway and about the status of many of these species.

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Environment.no provides information on species in categories that are of particular concern to the authorities. They may need to be taken into account in planning processes, need special management or even be undesirable in Norway. It does not include information on widespread and common Norwegian species such as the mountain hare, red squirrel and red fox.

Species categories

On Environment.no, you will find information on various categories of species that are of particular concern to the authorities. Some need to be taken into account when planning or need active management to avoid population decline or loss, whereas invasive species must be controlled to avoid damage to the native flora and fauna.

The Environmental Directorate has compiled a list of about 4600 species that are considered to be of particular concern, and has divided them into a number of categories:

  • Threatened and near-threatened species
  • Priority species
  • Species protected under special regulations
  • Alien species
  • Species for which Norway has a special responsibility

In addition, the list includes a small number of other important species and ecological variants that are not assessed as part of the work on the Red List. These are species that do not meet the criteria for any of the other species categories in the list, but that are nevertheless of particular concern to the authorities.

Threatened and near-threatened species

Threatened species are animals and plants that are at risk of global or regional extinction, often as a result of human activity. The Norwegian Red List is the official overview of threatened species in Norway. The IUCN Red List is the global equivalent.

In Norway, the Arctic fox, wolf and common guillemot are examples of critically threatened species. Species in this category that are considered to be at the greatest risk of extinction, either locally or globally.

Priority species

Species that need special protection or active management to safeguard them can be designated as priority species under the Nature Diversity Act. So far, 13 priority species have been designated.

Species protected under special regulations

There are various forms of species protection in Norway (the Wildlife Act protects all terrestrial mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians except those specifically defined as game species). This category of protected species includes only those (mainly plants and insects) that have been individually given permanent protection under separate regulations.

Alien species

Alien species are those that have been spread by human activity to areas where they are not native, either deliberately or unintentionally. Species that are native to part of Norway are also considered to be alien species if they are moved or spread to parts of the country where they are not found naturally.

Many alien species in Norway pose little or no threat to biodiversity. However, some can cause serious damage in areas where they do not belong and are considered to pose an ecological risk. They are known as invasive alien species. They often have few natural predators and spread easily, outcompeting native species, and therefore readily become established in Norway.

Species for which Norway has a special responsibility

For species with a large proportion of the population in Norway, overall population trends and ultimately the survival of the species can depend strongly on Norway's actions and species management. If 25 % or more of the European population of a species is found in Norway, it is defined as a species for which Norway has special responsibility. Not all species in this category are threatened or near-threatened – some of them have sizeable, healthy populations in Norway.

According to the Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre, there are at least 965 species for which Norway has special responsibility, a good many of which are Arctic species found in and around the Svalbard archipelago. Of the species in this category, 159 are also classified as threatened species in the Red List. The species groups most frequently represented in this category are vascular plants (298 species) and Diptera (139 species).

1.1. Threatened species

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

Threatened species are animals and plants that are at risk of global or regional extinction, often as a result of human activity. The Norwegian Red List is the official overview of threatened species in Norway. The IUCN Red List is the global equivalent.

Cortinarius eucaeruleus is listed as critically endangered on the Norwegian Red List. It is an attractive blue-lilac mushroom that grows in lime-rich broad-leaved woodland dominated by oak, hazel and lime. Photo: Kim Abel, naturarkivet.no
The bearded tit (Panurus biarmicus) is one of Norway’s rarest breeding birds, and is classified as near threatened on the Norwegian Red List. Photo: Bård Bredesen, naturarkivet.no
The boreal felt lichen (Erioderma pedicellatum) is listed as critically endangered both on the Norwegian Red List and on the IUCN Red List. Photo: Sigve Reiso, naturarkivet.no
The corncrake (Crex crex) is listed as critically endangered on the Norwegian Red List. It used to be a common farmland species as far north as the southern part of Nordland county, but is now only found in very small numbers. Photo: Bård Bredesen, naturarkivet.no

Almost 2400 threatened species in Norway

The most recent edition of the Norwegian Red List (2015) includes 4438 species, 2355 of which are considered to be threatened (critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable), while 1235 are listed as near threatened. These figures are for mainland Norway and the surrounding seas.

The most seriously threatened species are classified as critically endangered, and include the Arctic fox, wolf and common guillemot. Separate assessments have been made for freshwater fish, birds, lichens, vascular plants and mammals in Svalbard.

The map shows red-listed species that have been registered on two islands in the Hvaler archipelago in Østfold county. You can zoom in or out to explore further or click 'Explore maps' to open the map in a new tab.

Many changes have been made since the previous edition of the Norwegian Red List was published in 2010. This is mainly because the Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre has compiled a great deal of new information on Norwegian species, rather than because there have been real changes in populations. A number of species have been transferred to different categories. 

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Land-use change the greatest threat

Changes in land use are the greatest threat to biodiversity today, and therefore the most important reason why species are red-listed. In Norway, land-use change is considered to be a threat to 90 % of all critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable species (threatened species).

Other important factors are overgrowing of open landscape when traditional grazing and haymaking is discontinued (29 % of threatened species) and commercial forestry (41 %). Land-use change that is not related to farming or forestry activities (for example construction activities) pose a threat to 56 % of species in these three threat categories.

The Norwegian Red List also categorises species according to the main habitats where they are found. Mountain species show the most negative trend; 70 % of mountain species that have been transferred to a different category in 2015 are considered to be at greater risk of extinction than before, and are now in a higher threat category. Climate change is probably the most important explanation for this. A relatively large proportion (65 %) of the wetland species whose classification has been adjusted have also been moved to a higher category.

More species are associated with forests than with any other main habitat in Norway, so it is not surprising that forests also account for the largest proportion of red-listed species. Almost half (48 %) of all threatened species are found in forest, either exclusively or both in forest and in other habitats. The largest numbers of threatened species in forest habitats are in the species groups fungi (353 species), beetles (230 species), true flies or Diptera (128 species) and lichens (124 species). Many of the threatened species in forest are specialists, for example found on dead wood, large deciduous broad-leaved trees, burnt areas left by forest fires, or calcareous soils. A large proportion of the red-listed species found in forests are associated with rich broad-leaved forest, even though this only makes up 1 % of Norway's productive forest area.

About 24 % of the species listed as threatened are associated with semi-natural habitats, mainly traditional meadow and pasture. These have declined greatly in extent over the past hundred years, and now only make up a small proportion of the total area of Norway.

Only 2 % of the marine species assessed have been classified as threatened. Most of them are algae, fish and mammals. However, the low proportion of threatened species in the marine environment is partly explained by a lack of information. This is also reflected in the large number of species placed in the category data deficient (DD) – 71 % of the red-listed marine species.

Protection, action plans, mapping and monitoring

Norway is a party to several international agreements that deal with the protection of threatened species. The most important of these are the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Bern Convention, the Bonn Convention, the CITES Convention and the Ramsar Convention.

What is done to safeguard threatened species?

  • One important way of protecting species is to protect their habitats. Establishing protected areas can reduce habitat disturbance and human activities that are a threat to certain species.
  • Species can also be protected directly. In Norway, terrestrial vertebrates (mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles) are protected unless specifically defined as game species. Some freshwater species are also specifically protected, and there are regulations making it illegal to pick or harvest 70 species of plants and a few moss and invertebrate species. Most of these species are red-listed.
  • The Nature Diversity Act  has introduced the designations “priority species” and “selected habitat”, leaving it to the Government to decide which species and habitats are to be included.
  • The Norwegian Environment Agency draws up action plans in order to safeguard some of the most threatened species. The county governors’ offices are responsible for proposing action plans and putting them into practice.
  • The Norwegian Red List provides important information on many species and is a valuable tool in land use planning.

Mapping and monitoring

In Norway, several projects have been launched to map endangered species. A number of animal populations, for example large carnivores, golden eagles and seabirds, have been systematically monitored for several decades. Several of the endangered species for which action plans have been drawn up, are included in monitoring programmes.

Mapping and monitoring provide important information on species and habitats that the authorities can use in species management and land use planning.

1.1.1. Arctic fox in Norway

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

The Arctic fox is one of the most seriously endangered mammals in Norway. A twenty-year decline in the mainland population appears to have been reversed as a result of the success of  a captive breeding programme.

Arctic foxes mate in March and April, and the cubs are born about 50 days later. They first emerge from the den at about three weeks old, and are weaned at about six weeks. They rarely return to the den after they are 10–14 weeks old. Photo: Bård Bredesen, naturarkivet.no

Artic fox in winter. Photo: Nils Kristian Grønvik, Miljødirektoratet

Young Arctic foxes from the captive breeding programme are provided with artificial dens and feeders so that they have food and shelter on release. Arctic foxes are smaller than red foxes, and the feeders are designed so that only Arctic foxes can use them. Photo: Nils Kristian Grønvik, Miljødirektoratet

Arctic foxes feed primarily on lemmings, but also eat hares, birds and plant material and scavenge reindeer carcasses. When lemmings are abundant, Arctic foxes may have large litters of up to 16 pups. A more normal litter size when food supplies are adequate is three to six pups. Conditions are harsh in the Norwegain mountains, and about one in three pups is likely to be alive after the first winter. Lower survival rates are not unusual. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no

The Arctic fox is critically endangered

Despite strict protection of the Arctic fox in Norway since 1930, the population has never recovered to a viable level. The population is small and severely fragmented in both Norway and Sweden, and the Arctic fox is classified as critically endangered in the revised Norwegian Red List for Species (2015).

Since 2005, several measures have been implemented to increase the population of the Arctic fox, and since 2010, the population of adult individuals has increased significantly. Figures from the monitoring in 2017 show a minimum of 135 individuals, an increase from previous years.

In the period 2011–2017, 171 Arctic foxes were registered in Norway. The increase in the number of litters during this period is mainly due to the release of foxes through a breeding programme, as well as extra feeding and culling of red foxes.

Through the breeding programme Arctic foxes have been released in different mountain areas including Saltfjellet/Junkeren, Dovrefjell, Sylane, Finse and the southern part of Hardangervidda. In some cases, this has resulted in the migration of individuals to Sweden.

In 2014, the Arctic fox in Norway had a remarkably successful breeding season. A total of 50 litters was recorded and at least 321 cubs were born. Also 2015 was a good year for the Arctic fox. A total of 40 litters and a minimum of 204 cubs were documented.

In 2016, there was a decrease in the number; 16 litters and at least 60 cubs were recorded. The reason was a strong decline in the populations of lemmings and other small rodents, which are important food supplies for the Arctic fox.

In 2017, 40 litters and a minimum of 135 individuals were recorded.

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Abundance of lemmings – large litters of Arctic fox

Arctic foxes feed primarily on lemmings, but also eat hares, birds and plant material and scavenge reindeer carcasses. When lemmings are abundant, the Arctic fox may have large litters of up to 16 cubs. A more normal litter size, when food supplies are adequate, is three to six cubs. Conditions are harsh in the Norwegain mountains, and at best only about one in three cubs is likely to be alive after the first winter. Normally survival rates are much lower.

Hunting and competition from the red fox

Arctic foxes in mainland Norway rely mainly on lemmings, and will not breed if food supplies are inadequate. But there are several reasons why the Arctic fox is struggling to survive. Hunting and trapping was responsible for the initial population decline in the early 1900s. Competition from the red fox and fragmentation of the Arctic fox population are believed to be important factors today.

Captive breeding, monitoring and protection

Norway has undertaken to ensure that the species survives in several international agreements. Captive breeding and release of Arctic foxes is an important way of preventing their extinction on the mainland.

An action plan for the Arctic fox was drawn up in 2003, and the captive breeding programme started in 2005. The breeding programme has developed methods for the captive breeding of the Arctic fox and the release of cubs into the wild. The first wild-born litters produced by released foxes were recorded in 2010. Annual monitoring of the Arctic fox show that the release of foxes has contributed to the re-establishment of the species in Dovrefjell.

In 2015 the Arctic fox became a priority species, which means, that both the species and its dens are protected against disturbances and destruction.

Norway and Sweden have increased their cooperation on management and research to save the Arctic fox in Scandinavia. In 2017, a joint action plan for the Arctic fox in Norway and Sweden was finalized. It aims to coordinate measures and monitoring to achieve a robust Arctic fox population in Scandinavia.

A separate grant scheme for active management and other measures related to priority species that landowners, licensees, municipalities and organisations can apply for, has also been established. This is managed by the county governors.

1.1.2. Main threats and examples

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

 Threats 

 Examples

  
Physical disturbance Mainly various types of construction, for example building houses and roads, watercourse regulation, draining of watercourses, extraction of minerals and deposits and construction of power lines.  
Land use Mainly a result of agricultural and forestry activities. Changes in agricultural methods include the introduction of modern techniques, e.g. drainage, cultivation and fertilization of new land, ploughing of previously unploughed land, new crop strains, use of pesticides and the abandonment of traditional methods (e.g. disuse of pastures and hey meadows, which become overgrown). In forestry threats can be due to clear-cutting, pesticide use, introductions of alien tree species, drainage, afforestation, removal of dead wood, forest fires, disturbance and destruction of vulnerable areas through  increased traffic and wear and tear etc.  
Excessiv harvesting Refers mainly to overfishing of marine waters, and the resulting lack of food for other marine species. May also include unintentional catches of fish in fishing nets, faunal crime and collection of excessive numbers of animals or plants.  
Pollution  All kinds of pollution that exceed the tolerance limits of nature. In particular oil pollution, emissions of hazardous substances like heavy metals and pesticides, and eutrophication.  
Spread of alien species Introduction and spread of alien species to Norway or parts of the country, which results in  competition between alien and native species or predation of native species. Also includes the spread of alien diseases.  
Other  Includes factors that influence species outside Norway’s borders, either on migration or in their overwintering areas. Also includes any other factor not included in the preceding categories.  

1.2. Invasive alien species

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

The spread of invasive alien species can have negative impacts on the environment, the health of people, animals and plants, and the economy. Norway's strategy is to avoid the unintentional introduction of non-native species and to contain and control invasive alien species that have been introduced.

The American mink (Neovison vison) is an invasive alien species in Norway. It was introduced to Norway for commercial fur farming, but animals have escaped and been deliberately released from farms, and mink have become firmly established throughout Norway. As a result, populations of a number of other species have declined. Ground-nesting seabirds are particularly badly affected. Photo: Terje Kolaas, naturspesialisten.no
The Spanish slug (Arion vulgaris) was introduced with imported soil and plants, and is now abundant in much of Norway as far north as Trondheim. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no
The garden lupin (Lupinus polyphyllus) is an introduced species that often grows along roadsides and in meadows and other open areas in Norway. It spreads rapidly and outcompetes native species. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no
Signal crayfish was introduced from North America, and released in Sweden in 1960. The signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) was introduced to Sweden from North America in 1960 and was first recorded in Norway in 2006. Signal crayfish have had devastating effects on other freshwater crayfish in Europe because they carry crayfish plague, a serious fungal disease that is lethal to native crayfish. The disease has already spread to Norway, and the authorities are seeking to to contain and control both crayfish plague and signal crayfish. Photo: Anne Lise Sørensen
The raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) is native to Eastern Asia. It was introduced to the former Soviet Union, and is now well established in much of Finland. It is feared that it may also spread to Norway and have adverse effects on native species. The raccoon dog is omnivorous and can have severe impacts on populations of various species, including frogs, toads, newts and ground-nesting birds. Photo: Pekka J. Nikkander
The Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) is native to the Pacific coast of Asia. It is now established in Norwegian waters, and climate change and rising sea temperatures are expected to make conditions even more suitable for the species. Pacific oysters may also carry disease. It is unclear whether they have spread from oyster farms in Norway or whether ocean currents have carried larvae to Norwegian waters. Photo: Kim Abel, naturarkivet.no
The pike (Esox lucius) is native to some parts of Norway, but can cause serious damage when it is introduced to other areas. For instance, it can cause a serious decline in native trout populations. Trout are also important as intermediate hosts in the life cycle of the freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera), which is classified as vulnerable on the Norwegian Red List. Introduction of pike to some rivers may therefore have an indirect impact on freshwater mussel populations. Photo: Børre Dervo
The rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is a North American species that is extensively farmed in Norway, and escaped fish have often been found in our waters. If breeding populations of rainbow trout become established in Norwegian rivers, this could have serious negative impacts on wild salmon, trout and Arctic char stocks. Escaped rainbow trout may also carry salmon lice and disease. Photo: Asbjørn Borge

A growing threat to Norwegian ecosystems

New non-native species are constantly being discovered in the wild in Norway. This is partly explained by globalisation of the economy and the accompanying increase in trade and travel. Climate change is another important factor. With generally higher temperatures, a longer growing season, and shorter, milder winters, it will become easier for alien species to establish populations in Norway.

Many new alien species

The twentieth century saw the arrival of many new alien species in Norway, whether on land, in rivers and lakes or at sea. The infamous salmon parasite Gyrodactylus salaris arrived as a "hitchhiker" on salmon smolt imported in the early days of fish farming. The harlequin ladybird was first recorded in an imported consigment of thuja. The Spanish slug – the gardener's nightmare – has spread with imported vegetables.

The most recent arrivals in Norway include the signal crayfish, raccoon dog, Nuttall’s pondweed and a new species of bark beetle. These are all species that could have serious impacts on ecosystems and threaten native Norwegian species if they become established in the wild.

The map shows species on the Norwegian Black List 2012 in and around the capital Oslo. You can zoom in to see further detail or click on "More maps and functions" to check the situation in other parts of the country.

Species moving rapidly polewards

New research has shown that the distribution of many species is shifting in response to a changing climate – and much faster than was previously thought. A study looked at roughly 2 000 species, which are moving at an average rate of more than 4.5 metres a day. This means that their ranges shift  about 1.6 km closer to the poles every year.

How can alien species cause damage?

Alien species are all those that have been introduced to an area where they are not found naturally. Many of them are unable to adapt to a new environment or are harmless if they do survive, but others pose a threat to native plants and animals, and are called invasive alien species. They may for instance:

  • compete with native species for food and/or habitat
  • alter the habitat in which they live 
  • carry diseases or parasites
  • hybridise with native species
  • increase the risk that already threatened species will become extinct, or displace native species from an area.

Norwegian Black List

In June 2012, the Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre published Alien species in Norway – with the Norwegian Black List 2012. This contains an overview of alien species recorded in Norway and an assessment of their impacts on Norwegian nature.

Alien species are placed in one of the five impact categories shown in the table below, depending on how serious a threat they are considered to be to native biodiversity. Severe impact species are most likely to cause problems, for example by outcompeting native species or hybridising with them.

The Biodiversity Information Centre has now registered 2320 alien species in Norway. Risk assessments have been carried out for 1180 species that already reproduce in the wild in Norway or are expected to do so in the next 50 years, and 134 that could pose an ecological risk if they spread to the country. In all, 217 species have been placed in the categories "severe impact" and "high impact". Severe impact species include the Spanish slug, American mink and March Lupine.  

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What is Norway doing to control alien species?

Three-stage approach

Prevention is better than control: it is easier and cheaper to avoid the introduction of alien species in the first place. This is why it is so important never to take plants and animals with you across borders unless you are quite sure it is permitted.

If an alien species has already reached Norway, the next option is eradication. This is usually only feasible before a species has spread too widely, so early detection of new non-native species and a rapid response are important.

If it is not possible to eradicate a species, the third option is to contain its spread and control its numbers. For instance, many gardeners inspect their gardens regularly and collect and kill as many Spanish slugs as possible. 

Who is responsible?

The environmental authorities coordinate much of the work on alien species in Norway, but all sectors are responsible for the impacts of their own activities, including the introduction of alien species.  

This was made clear in Norway's Strategy on Invasive Alien Species, which was published in 2007. The strategy describes Norway's goals and what action can be taken to prevent the spread of alien species. It requires cooperation between the authorities, research communities and voluntary organisations.

The Ministry of Climate and Environment is responsible for ensuring that everyone complies with the legislation on alien species. The Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre gathers information about alien species that are already present in Norway and what kind of damage they may do. It also assesses which alien species are likely to spread to Norway in the future. The Norwegian Environment Agency provides advice on managing alien species.

The authorities have drawn up action plans for dealing with certain invasive alien species: those for American mink, raccoon dog, Spanish slug, the salmon parasite Gyrodactylus salaris and the Japanese rose have been completed.

The county authorities are involved in preparing action plans and coordinating control and eradication efforts. Many municipalities are also involved in containing, controlling and eradicating alien species, and in some cases they also enlist the help of the general public.

1.3. Large carnivores

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

Until the mid-19th century, there were large populations of the four large carnivores; brown bear (Ursus arctus), wolverine (Gulo gulo), wolf (Canis lupis) and lynx (Lynx lynx), throughout much of Norway. All four species were hunted relentlessly. As a result, wolves and bears were almost exterminated by the mid-20th century. Since then, their populations have shown signs of recovery.

Wolf photographed under controlled conditions in an enclosure at Langedrag. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no
Wolverine photographed in the wild in Finland. Photo: Terje Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no
Lynx is the only wild cat in Norway. Lynx feeds on deer and smaller mammals. This picture is taken under controlled conditions. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no

Population increase

Most of Norway's large carnivores belong to populations that we share with neighbouring countries. The populations of large carnivores have increased slowly since the mid-20th century when they were almost extinct. Wolverine and bear populations started to rise in parts of the country from the late 1970s, lynx in the 1950s and wolves in the 1990s.

More research and improved monitoring of the populations have given us more information on population sizes and on the biology of these species. Read more about Norway's large carnivores:

The map shows management areas for bear (brown area), lynx (green area), wolverine (blue area) and wolf (red area). You can zoome in to explore further.

Measures to reduce conflict

Wolves and bears were protected throughout Norway in 1971 and 1973 respectively. Wolverines were designated as a protected species in southern and central Norway from 1973 and in the rest of the country from 1982.

Norwegian large carnivore management aims to maintain viable populations of the four large carnivores while also maintaining an active agricultural sector, including opportunities to use uncultivated land for grazing by sheep and reindeer. The Norwegian Parliament (Stortinget) has also agreed to these recommendations. Steps to reduce conflicts between livestock and large predators are therefore very important.

In order to achieve the goals both for the large carnivores and for agriculture, the management regime varies from one area to another, whereby agriculture is prioritized in some districts and the large carnivores in others. Close contact with the local authorities and other stakeholders is very important.

Norway has international obligations

The Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats applies to all four of the large carnivores – wolverine, lynx, bear and wolf. The wolverine, bear and wolf are included in Appendix II, which lists strictly protected species, and the lynx in Appendix III, which lists protected species.

The wolf, bear and lynx are also included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This Appendix lists species in which trade may be permitted but must be strictly regulated.

1.3.1. Brown bear

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

Around 150 years ago, there were 4000–5000 brown bears in Scandinavia, roughly 3000 of them in Norway. Bears were ruthlessly hunted in both Norway and Sweden in the early 20th century, and almost exterminated. Today, the stronghold of bears in Norway is along the border with Sweden, Finland and Russia.

Brown bear photographed in the wild in an area of forest and bog on the border between Finland and Russia. Photo Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no
Characteristic bear track along the edge of a river. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no
Analyses of bear scat show that bears eat large quantities of berries in the autumn. Monitoring the bear population is a difficult task, but DNA analysis of scat and hair samples enables researchers to identify individual bears and determine their sex.. With information on the size of the home range used by female bears and the age structure of the bear population, it is possible to estimate the number of family groups. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no
There are small numbers of bears in Hedmark, Nord-Trøndelag and Sør-Trøndelag counties and in the Pasvik area of Finnmark as a result of dispersal from the relatively large populations in Sweden, Finland and Russia. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no

Population target not achieved

Norway’s national target is for 13 bear litters to be born each year in Norway. It is estimated that in 2017, only seven litters were born.

It is difficult to register bear cubs in the field, because females with cubs do not leave the winter den until late in spring, often after the spring thaw. This means that they cannot be registered by tracking them in the snow. In addition, it is often difficult to determine whether cubs were born in the current year or the year before, since they may not be very different in size. DNA analysis of bear scat and hair samples is therefore used to estimate the number of litters.

Bear count in Norway in 2017: 125 animals

It has proved to be difficult to obtain reliable figures for the number of bears in Norway. They spend most of the winter in hibernation, so that tracking them in the snow is not a suitable way of registering numbers.

In 2006, collection of bear scat for DNA analysis was started in a project involving moose hunters and the Norwegian Nature Inspectorate. From 2009, scat and hair samples have been collected every year from all parts of Norway.

In 2017, DNA analysis showed that there were at least 125 bears in Norway, 55 females and 70 males. These are minimum figures, since we cannot assume that every single animal was registered. However, systematic sampling repeated over several years gives a very good picture of the Norwegian bear population.

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bjorn_2018_eng.png

Two bear populations

The bears living in Norway today are considered to belong to two different populations. Bears in Finnmark belong to the Norwegian-Finnish-Russian population, while those in other parts of the country belong to a joint Scandinavian population.

Most bears are found in a zone along the border with Sweden, Finland and Russia, but young  male bears roam very widely and may turn up almost anywhere in mainland Norway.

Hunting nearly exterminated bears in Norway

Between 1850 and 1860, 200–300 bears were shot every year in Norway. They were relentlessly hunted in both Norway and Sweden, and were almost extinct in most of the region by the early part of the 20th century. A bounty system was maintained in Norway until 1932.

Today, the population is regulated by culling by licensed hunters. This is done to reduce livestock damage. When a cull is authorised, the bear quota is set at a level designed to maintain a viable population. The authorities may also authorise culling of a specific problem bear to prevent damage to livestock or domestic reindeer.

Reducing conflict, population regulation and monitoring

In 1932, Norway introduced legal protection for hibernating bears, and in 1973, this was extended to give year-round protection.

International agreements that apply to the brown bear

The Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats applies to the brown bear. The species is included in Appendix II, which lists strictly protected animal species. It is also included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This Appendix lists species in which trade may be permitted but must be strictly regulated.

Reducing bear-human conflicts

Norway’s policy is to ensure that bear populations are viable and that active and all-round use of resources in uncultivated areas can be maintained, including grazing by livestock and domestic reindeer.

This means that in some areas, we are trying to maintain a bear population and at the same time safeguard livestock and/or domestic reindeer. Measures to prevent or reduce bear-human conflicts are very important. These may include suitable fencing, bringing livestock in from rough grazing earlier than normal, using dogs to guard livestock, or keeping livestock in enclosures at night. In addition, problem bears can be culled in acute situations.

The map shows designated management areas for brown bear in Norway. You can zoom in or out to explore further.

Culling

In areas where it has been decided that breeding bears are unwanted, culling is the most important means of regulating the population. In these cases, culling of a quota of bears is permitted.

In addition, it is easier to obtain permission to cull problem bears that take sheep or domestic reindeer in these areas than in the designated management areas for bears.

Monitoring the bear population

Collection of bear scat and hair samples for DNA analysis is the most important method of monitoring the bear population. This is part of the national monitoring programme for predators. The monitoring programme provides detailed information about the geographical distribution and size of the bear population.

DNA analysis of the samples makes it possible to determine the sex and identity of the bear in each case. This information, together with knowledge of the size of the home range normally used by female bears and the age structure of the bear population, is used to estimate the number of litters born in Norway each year.

1.3.2. Golden eagle

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

Golden eagles breed in most parts of Norway except the southeastern lowlands. The population has probably been more or less stable for the past 20 years, and in 2010 the species was removed from the Norwegian Red List.

Close-up of a juvenile golden eagle. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no
Juvenile golden eagle showing the characteristic white patches under the wings and tail. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no
Golden eagles hunt prey such as grouse, ducks, hares and foxes and also feed on carrion. This bird has caught a hazel grouse. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no

Stable population

The breeding population of golden eagles in Norway in 2015 was estimated to be between 652 and 1139 pairs.

Norway’s aim is to maintain a stable golden eagle population in each of the eight management regions for carnivores and golden eagle, in accordance with a decision by the Storting in 2004. In most parts of Norway, the population appears to have been stable for many years.

Habitat loss and disturbance may affect golden eagles

Golden eagles have large territories and need nesting sites where they will not be disturbed. This makes them vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation. Factors that can have a negative impact on golden eagles include changes in land use and physical alteration of the landscape, for example through the construction of roads and buildings, power lines, wind farms and hydropower infrastructure.

Golden eagles are particularly sensitive to disturbance during the incubation period. Since they lay eggs in March-April, this often coincides with Easter, which in Norway is a long holiday and a popular time for skiing in the mountains. People sometimes disturb incubating birds, resulting in breeding failure.

Raising awareness and monitoring

In recent years, growing attention has been paid to developments that reduce the area of suitable habitat for golden eagles and cause habitat fragmentation, and the impacts they have on the population.

One important way of maintaining the Norwegian golden eagle population is to make people more aware of factors that can have a negative impact on them, including disturbance during the breeding season. Monitoring and inspection of known nesting sites is also needed.

The golden eagle is included in Appendix II of the Bern Convention. 

Monitoring the population

Golden eagles in Norway are monitored as part of the national monitoring programme for large carnivores.

Breeding territories currently or previously in use are registered throughout Norway, and in selected areas adult survival and production of young are monitored more intensively.

The map below shows the 11 areas that are included in the intensive monitoring programme. The red circles are areas that have been part of the terrestrial environmental monitoring programme for many years, and where figures for production of young were already available. The blue circles show areas where monitoring started in 2012 or 2013. 

kongeorn-2014_en.png

1.3.3. Lynx

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

The lynx is widely distributed in northern Europe, but a substantial proportion of the population lives in Norway, Sweden and northwestern Finland. All three countries are therefore independently responsible for lynx management within their borders, and also have a joint responsibility for management in the region as a whole, since lynxes range widely across national borders.

The lynx is the only wild cat in Norway. It is an forest animal that feeds mainly on roe deer and smaller mammals, but can also take sheep and reindeer. This lynx was photographed under controlled conditions. Photo: Bård Bredesen, naturarkivet.no

Lynx in winter, photographed under controlled conditions. Photo:Kim Abel, naturarkivet.no

55,5 lynx litters in Norway

In the mid-19th century, the lynx was fairly widely distributed in Norway, except along the west coast and in northern parts of the country. Its distribution probably became more restricted during the 1800s, and by 1920–30 only relict populations remained. This was also the case in Sweden.

In the 1950s and 1960s lynx numbers rose again. The species expanded into parts of its former range, and also expanded its range northwards in both Sweden and Norway, so that there are now lynxes in areas where they were not previously found.

Today, there is a permanent population of lynx throughout Norway, except in the counties of Western Norway, where it occurs more sporadically. Lynxes probably did not breed in Finnmark until 1980.

The map below shows where lynx family groups were registered in Norway in 2017. Each circle represents one family group.

Gaupe_2017_eng.png

Population target not achieved

In 2017, 55,5 litters of lynx were registered in Norway before the start of the hunting season, corresponding to about 330 animals. Thus, the annual target of 65 litters was not reached in 2017.

Population regulated by hunting

By the 1930s, year-round hunting and the payment of bounties had almost completely eradicated the lynx from Norway. Today, the population is regulated by hunting under the normal rules of the Wildlife Act. 

A quota is set for each management area where the annual population target has been reached. The Norwegian Environment Agency can set a quota even if the population target has not been achieved.

Reducing conflict and population monitoring

The government bounty scheme for lynx was ended in 1980, and in 1992 the species was protected in the southern half of Norway, until hunting was reintroduced (regulated by quotas) in 1994.

International agreements that apply to the lynx

The Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats applies to the lynx. The species is included in Appendix III, which lists protected animal species. It is also included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). 

Viable lynx population and all-round use of resources in uncultivated areas

Norway’s current policy is intended to ensure that the lynx population is viable and that active and all-round use of resources in uncultivated areas can be maintained, including grazing by livestock and domestic reindeer.

Measures to reduce losses of livestock and domestic reindeer are important in preventing and reducing lynx–human conflicts. Hunting quotas and culling are both intended as measures to reduce conflict.

The map shows designated management areas for lynx. You can zoom in or out to explore further.

Monitoring the population

The lynx population is monitored as part of the national monitoring programme for large carnivores.

Family groups (which consist of a mother and her yearling cubs) are registered each year by snow-tracking. This is usually done by local observers, who report to the Norwegian Nature Inspectorate. In addition, lynx tracks are censused along fixed line transects in some parts of Norway. The Norwegian Association of Hunters and Anglers is responsible for these observations.

1.3.4. Wolf

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

The original Scandinavian wolf population died out during the 1960s. The wolves found in Norway and Sweden today are descended from a small number of animals from the Finnish-Russian population that dispersed as far as southern Scandinavia in the 1980s and 1990s. The wolf is red-listed as critically endangered in Norway today.

Wolf photographed under controlled conditions in an enclosure. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no
Wolf (Canis lupus) photographed under controlled conditions in an enclosure. Wolf numbers have been dramatically reduced in many parts of the world by hunting and persecution. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no
Wolves are predators that live and hunt in packs and feed mainly on larger mammals. In the Nordic region, moose are their most important prey. This group was photographed under controlled conditions in an enclosure. Photo: Kim Abel, naturarkivet.no
Young female wolf from a Swedish pack photographed in eastern Hedmark county, not far from the Swedish border. This animal was fitted with a GPS collar in early 2010. Photo: Lars Gangås, Norwegian Nature Inspectorate

Growing Scandinavian wolf population

During the 1990s, the Scandinavian wolf population grew strongly, from fewer than ten animals to almost 100 in 1999. Population growth has continued after this.

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The Scandinavian population is relatively isolated, so that inbreeding and a lack of genetic diversity may determine whether it is viable in the long term. This is an important issue for the management authorities.

Wolf numbers in Scandinavia, 2016–17

In winter 2016–17, the monitoring programme showed that there were around 430 wolves in Scandinavia. There were 46 packs and 28 scent-marking pairs. 54-56 wolves were classified with territories entirely in Norway, 51-56 with territories straddling the Norwegian-Swedish border. This gives a total of 105-112 observated wolves fultime or partly staying in Norway.

Ulv_skandinavia_2017_eng.png

Poaching

Before wolves were given legal protection in 1971, they had already been exterminated in Norway by relentless hunting.

Recent research has shown that there is considerable poaching of wolves, and that this is the most important cause of wolf mortality. Illegal kills also make it much more difficult to ensure sound management of the wolf population.

Close watch on the wolf population

Wolves were given temporary protection in Norway from 1971, and permanent protection from 15 May 1973. The wolf is listed as critically endangered on the Norwegian Red List from 2015.

Population target four to six litters a year in Norway

Norway’s national target is four to six wolf litters to be born each year within the designated management area for breeding wolves.

The map shows the designated management area for wolves. You can zoom in or out to explore further.

Monitoring the wolf population

Wolf scat and hair samples are collected for DNA analysis to find out how many wolves there are in each territory and the relationships between them. Together with traditional tracking and registration of litters, this makes it possible to monitor the wolf population.

Population regulated by culling

The wolf population is regulated by culling by licensed hunters. When a cull is authorised, the authorities specify the wolf quota and the geographical areas where the cull is to take place. The purpose is to reduce livestock damage.

If an acute situation arises, the authorities may also authorise culling of a specific problem wolf to prevent losses of livestock or domestic reindeer.

International agreements that apply to the wolf

The Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats applies to the wolf. The species is included in Appendix II, which lists strictly protected animal species. It is also included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This Appendix lists species in which trade may be permitted but must be strictly regulated.

1.3.5. Wolverine

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

The wolverine used to be widely distributed in Norway, but became locally extinct in parts of its range in the first half of the 20th century. In the last three years, the wolverine population in Norway has declined.

Wolverine photographed in the wild in Finland. This is the largest mustelid species in Scandinavia. In Norway it is largely a mountain species that feeds mainly on reindeer carcasses. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no

Population target reached

In 2017, 40 wolverine litters were registered in Norway. This is a little above the national population target, which is 39 litters a year.

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The map below shows where wolverine litters were registered in Norway in 2017. Each circle represents one litter.

jerv_ynglehi2017_siluett_.jpg

About 324 adult wolverines in Norway

Data from the national monitoring programme for large carnivores are used to provide annual estimates of how many wolverines there are in Norway. In 2017, the total winter population was estimated at 324 adult animals. The number of litters registered in the three preceding seasons is used as a basis for these estimates.

The Scandinavian wolverine population is divided into three main sub-populations:

  • a southwestern Norwegian population
  • the main easterly population (including wolverines in Nord-Trøndelag and Nordland counties
  • a northern population in the two northernmost counties of Norway (Troms and Finnmark) and northern Finland.

Hunting exterminated wolverines locally

The wolverine population in the southern half of Norway declined severely in the early 20th century as a result of hunting pressure. Wolverines became locally extinct. In winter 1964–65, ten wolverines were killed in the Jotunheimen mountains, and this probably wiped out the last breeding wolverine population in the southern half of the country.

Protected in 1973

After the severe decline in important parts of its range, the wolverine was protected in Sweden in 1968 and the southern half of Norway in 1973.

The establishment of a breeding population in the Rondane-Dovrefjell area in the period 1976–79 was probably a direct result of this, so that protection allowed wolverines to become re-established in an area where there had not been a resident population for more than 50 years. Breeding females have since colonised neighbouring areas of the mountains.

Since the 1970s, the population has grown in the three northernmost counties and the mountains of central and southern Norway.

Culling and conflict reduction

Since the 1990s, the environmental authorities have regulated wolverine numbers by culling. In areas where it has been decided that breeding wolverines are unwanted, culling is the most important means of regulating the population – either by setting a quota of wolverines that can be killed by licensed hunters in a particular area or by permitting killing of problem individuals

The map shows designated management areas for wolverine. You can zoom in or out to explore further.

Preventing and reducing conflict

In areas where livestock and domestic reindeer are given priority, measures to prevent or reduce wolverine-human conflicts are very important. These may include suitable fencing, bringing livestock in from rough grazing earlier than normal in the autumn, guarding livestock or using night-time enclosures. 

Monitoring the population

Wolverines are monitored as part of the national monitoring programme for large carnivores. The number of litters born every year is registered (both known denning areas and other suitable areas are checked), and samples of wolverine scat and hair are sent for DNA analysis. This provides more information on individual animals, habitat use and population structure.

International agreements that apply to wolverines

The Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats applies to the wolverine. The species is included in Appendix II, which lists strictly protected animal species. 

1.4. Deer

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

The deer species found in Norway are the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), moose (Alces alces), and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). During the past 20 - 30 years, deer populations have become important commercial and recreational resources and an important part of the wilderness experience.

A grazing roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Photo: Bård Bredesen, naturarkivet.no

Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in autumn. Photo: Kim Abel, naturarkivet.no

Red deer (Cervus elaphus) grazing in summer time. Photo: Bård Bredesen, naturarkivet.no.

A bull elk (Alces alces) grazing. Photo: Sigve Reiso, naturarkivet.no

Large populations of deer

At the same time the grazing pressure exerted by the growing populations has influenced the vegetation. This affects the landscape and economic interests of landowners, and may also influence biological diversity. Collisions between deer species and vehicles on the road and railroad trains are frequent, causing damage to property, injuries to people and sometimes death.

The last viable populations of the wild European reindeer

Norway manages the last viable populations of the wild European reindeer. This leads to an international responsibility for this species for Norway. Roads, railroads and hydropower reservoirs in combination with other human activities have split up their range, leaving a fragmented habitat for this species. Most fragments are small, compared to the area requirements of reindeer populations, and the balance between summer and winter grazing areas in most of the fragments is poor. In several areas, it has been necessary to cull the population heavily to prevent overgrazing and food shortages.

Moose

For some years moose densities has been too high in regard to the available browse, in a number of areas in the southern part of Norway. Many municipalities have responded to this by reducing moose numbers. The moose populations are however, still increasing their range and numbers in Northern and Western Norway.

Red deer

Red deer populations are increasing their range, but population-monitoring reveal that few populations are larger than their grazing resources can support. The populations are dense in Western Norway and in Trøndelag. Red deer populations are expanding into more and more municipalities in southern and eastern Norway. High densities of red deer in some areas cause damage to farm crops and fruit orchards. The management regime is not sustainable in relation to the damage red deer cause, in the municipalities involved.

Roe deer

Roe deer populations are strongly influenced by the weather, for example heavy snowfalls, and by predators. This means that their numbers vary more widely than those of the other species of deer.

Wild reindeer

There are approximately 35 000 wild reindeer in Norway, distributed across about 40 000 km2 of mountain plateau and mountain birch forest. The main problem for the wild reindeer is that their habitats are fragmented by human activities. Early in the 20th century the range of the reindeer consisted of two to three large, interconnected areas. Today there are 23 separate management areas, stretching from Setesdal/Ryfylkeheiane north of Hægebostad in the south, to Forellhogna restricted by the Gauldal valley in the north. Read more about wild reindeer

Growing populations, but shrinking habitats

The numbers of moose, red- and roe deer species have risen in response to four factors:

  • Clear- cutting of forest and less grazing of livestock in forest areas has improved their food supplies.
  • Intended and unintended lower harvest than production of young
  • Selective shooting of younger animals and male animals increase the proportion of fertile females in the population
  • Mild winters

Excessive hunting of reindeer and loss of habitat

Once modern weapons were available, excessive hunting of reindeer reduced the population in the southern parts of Norway, and by around 1900 only small, scattered populations were left in the areas Snøhetta, Rondane, Setesdal-Ryfylke, Hardangervidda and Nordfjella. All these areas are in the mountains of the Norway south of the Trondheim fjord.

Protection in 1900-1905 and around 1920 allowed the populations to recover slightly. Substantial recovery of wild reindeer numbers was not achieved until after the Second World War. Competing land use, disturbance from humans and use of mountain areas for reindeer husbandry have led to loss of wild reindeer habitat. Roads, railways, hydropower reservoirs and power lines have fragmented the reindeer populations. The management regime for reindeer is generally acceptable today, but the fragmentation of their habitats and increasing human disturbance means constant efforts are needed to prevent wild reindeer numbers from becoming too large in particular areas.

Loss of habitat for moose, red deer and roe deer

Moose, red deer and roe deer also face habitat loss and habitat fragmentation as a result of land use and disturbance. The substantial reduction of carrying capacity of moose in parts of Akershus county being the best documented. This reduction in carrying capacity was caused by the development of the new main airport in Norway, Gardermoen, and the adjacent road and railroad systems.

Deer collisions with vehicles and trains cause damage to property and injuries to people. Some people are killed at an irregular basis in deer vehicle collisions. These collisions also cause an animal welfare problem.

Our goal is to stabilise populations

The moose, red deer and reindeer populations must be stabilized at levels that are considered to be sustainable, on the basis of the quality of the population and activities in other sectors such as forestry and transport.

Municipal responsibility to ensure viable populations

Municipalities in several counties have increased moose and red deer quotas considerably and reduced negative effects on the farm crops and forest and by that given room for more viable moose- and red deer populations. It is now a municipal responsibility to adapt population densities of moose, red deer and roe deer to the local habitat. To ensure that this is done, the municipalities are given responsibility for administrative and economic instruments to control deer numbers. The same is true for wild reindeer management boards.

1.4.1. Wild reindeer

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

Norway is home to the last remaining viable populations of wild reindeer in Europe, and we therefore have a special responsibility for ensuring their survival. Infrastructure development and disturbance are resulting in the loss and fragmentation of wild reindeer habitat.

Wild reindeer. Photo: Sigve Reiso, naturarkivet.no 

Norway has almost 35 000 wild reindeer

Today there are between 30 000 and 35 000 wild reindeer in Norway. Originally, their range included all Norway’s mountain areas. Reindeer in the southern half of the country have previous been split between four main regions, as shown on the map. However, there were few barriers to reindeer movement at the time, and probably a great deal of exchange of animals between regions. 

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The map shows the previous four main regions in southern Norway. Source: The Norwegian Environment Agency/environment.no

Wild reindeer now locally extinct in several areas

North of Trondheim and in certain mountain areas further south, domestic reindeer have completely replaced the wild populations. South of Trondheim, wild reindeer are now restricted to certain parts of their original distribution area.  

Wild reindeer habitat fragmented

During the past 30 years, many roads, reservoirs and holiday cabins have been constructed in and near areas where there are still wild reindeer populations. This has resulted in fragmentation of reindeer habitat and has split up populations. Today there are 23 more or less separate and much smaller wild reindeer areas, and very little opportunity for animals to move between them.

Several of the remaining areas of reindeer habitat are at risk of further development and fragmentation, which would will split up the reindeer populations still further.

Balance between reindeer numbers and grazing resources

Today, there is a good balance between wild reindeer numbers and grazing resources, and the carrying capacity of reindeer habitat is being maintained. Lichen-covered areas, which are the most important winter grazing habitat for wild reindeer, are not being overgrazed, and the thickness of the lichen mats is not decreasing.

Wild reindeer generally in good health

In the spring 2016, a wild reindeer suffering from chronic wasting disease (CWD) was detected in Nordfjella reindeer area. Actions have been taken to attempt to eradicate CWD in Norway, and it has not been found in other wild reindeer populations in Norway. The health of Norway’s wild reindeer is monitored through The Health Surveillance Programme for Cervids (HOP). Aside from CWD, the health of wild reindeer is generally good. There are, however, occasional outbreaks of foot rot, tissue worm (Elaphostrongylus cervi) and enterotoxemia, a disease caused by a toxin from gut bacteria.

Climate change may also affect reindeer health. Warmer and wetter summers may increase the incidence of disease and the numbers of parasites, while milder and wetter winters will result in more ice formation on winter grazing grounds. The result may be poorer survival and breeding success.

Wild reindeer easily disturbed by human activity

Wild reindeer are very easily disturbed. Infrastructure development can displace reindeer from grazing areas or act as barriers to migration (wild reindeer dislike crossing roads and railways). Even skiers and walkers can be a serious problem at certain times, for example during calving. Too much disturbance can prevent reindeer from feeding normally and affect their health. They may be unable to build up sufficient fat reserves to survive the winter and for the females to calve normally.

Energy needs may put pressure on reindeer habitat

A growing demand for energy may increase pressure to develop more of Norway’s remaining hydropower potential and to construct wind farms in areas of wild reindeer habitat. Such developments would also increase the need for high-voltage power lines. This would split up reindeer habitat still further, while reservoir construction would displace and disturb the reindeer.

Holiday cabins and use of the mountains

Holiday cabin developments also displace wild reindeer, and are a particular problem on the margins of the reindeer management areas. These are often important winter grazing areas.

In recent years, the use of marked trails in the mountains has increased. Trails with high activity and traffic may seem like a barrier that the reindeer not want to cross.

Hunting

The wild reindeer populations are regulated by hunting. This ensures an appropriate relationship between the amount of food available and number of animals. 

The population target for each management area is determined locally.  The meat from harvested animals is used for human consumption.

The graph below shows the size of the annual harvest in the last three years. In 2018 approximately 4200 wild reindeer were shot during the hunting season, down by 1400 animals from the year before. Most reindeer are usually harvested in Hardangervidda, the largest wild reindeer area in Norway. In 2018, the quotas were low here, and Reinheimen-Breheimen was the reindeer area with the highest number of reindeer shot, approximately 800.

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Safeguarding wild reindeer habitat

To maintain a healthy, robust wild reindeer population, we must safeguard reindeer habitat and maintain a good balance between reindeer numbers and the available grazing resources.

Wild reindeer management boards 

There are nine wild reindeer management boards, which are appointed by the The Norwegian Environment Agency. The boards have local representation, and have management responsibility for one or a few wild reindeer areas.

Habitat conservation

The Norwegian Government has decided that regional plans are to be drawn up for mountain areas that are particularly important for wild reindeer. After the idea was launched in a white paper in 2005, a programme was set up to prepare regional plans for 10 reindeer management areas by 2012. Each plan is being drawn up by the counties and municipalities involved. (The 10 areas are Snøhetta, Knutshø, Rondane, Sølnkletten, Forollhogna, Ottadalsområdet, Hardangervidda, Nordfjella, Setesdals Austhei and Setesdal-Ryfylke). The aim is for each plan to find a good balance between the needs of wild reindeer and the interests of other user groups.

How can we reduce disturbance  to wild reindeer?

There are many different ways of reducing disturbance to wild reindeer from human activities, for example:

  • closing mountain lodges at times of year when reindeer are particularly vulnerable
  • planning where cabins, paths and ski tracks are sited and where tour operators should arrange their activities on the basis of what is known about the migration routes of wild reindeer and areas where they are particularly sensitive to disturbance
  • providing the public with information on how to avoid disturbance to reindeer
  • introducing a certification system for nature-based tourism companies
  • making more active use of land-use planning to channel walkers and skiers to areas where they will not disturb wild reindeer
  • forbidding parking and stopping on sections of road that are natural starting points for trips into vulnerable wild reindeer habitat.

2. Protected areas

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

The main purpose of protecting areas is to safeguard a representative selection of Norwegian habitats and landscapes for future generations and to protect areas of special value for plants and animals.

An old summer farm with log buildings and surrounding pasture in Gutulia national park, Hedmark. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no

A fallen elm covered in lichens and mosses. Dead wood is a vital part of forest ecosystems. This is from the valley Almedalen (the name means “elm valley”), part of Hagahogget nature reserve in Asker west of Oslo. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no

This is one of the largest oaks in Norway, in the protected landscape of Berge in Hordaland. The purpose of the protection of this area is taking care of ancient oaks, a water with interesting vegetation and old buildings. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no

Gjermundsholmen nature reserve in Telemark, which was established to protect the attractive and distinctive coastal landscape. The calcareous bedrock supports characteristic woodland, scrub and grassland including many rare plant and insect species. Photo: Sigve Reiso, Naturarkivet.no

From Semsvannet protected landscape close to Oslo. The boggy area by the lake is an important wetland that supports several rare species of sedges and insects. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no

About 17 per cent of mainland Norway is protected

The degradation and fragmentation of habitats is the greatest threat to biodiversity in Norway. By establishing national parks and other protected areas, we can safeguard threatened and vulnerable habitats and areas of international, national or regional importance.

The Convention on Biological Diversity is the global agreement on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. At the Nagoya summit in 2010, the world’s countries agreed on new goals – the Aichi targets – to be achieved by 2020. These include ensuring the effective conservation of ecologically representative areas covering at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas.

Protected areas in mainland Norway

About 17 per cent of mainland Norway is now protected under the Nature Diversity Act. A large proportion of this consists of mountainous areas. A number of other habitat types, such as those in coastal and marine habitats, are not yet adequately represented.

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Coastal waters within the baseline around mainland Norway cover an area of 90 000 km2, but only about 2 900 km2 of this is protected. Norway has an international responsibility to safeguard a representative selection of fjord and coastal areas of types that are hardly found anywhere else in the world. Two of the national parks include skerries off the coast, but fjords are very poorly represented.

In addition, Norway has designated the island of Jan Mayen north-east of Iceland as a nature reserve. The reserve includes a marine area of approximately 4 315 km2 around the island.

The map shows Jotunheimen National Park, which includes Norway’s highest mountain, Galdhøpiggen (2469 m), and Jostedalsbreen, the largest glacier in Northern Europe. The map layer also shows other types of protected areas. You can zoom in or out to explore further.

Protected areas in Svalbard

A much higher proportion of Svalbard than of mainland Norway is protected, including large marine areas. National parks and nature reserves are protected under the 2002 Svalbard Environmental Protection Act. Altogether, they cover 65 per cent of the area of the islands and about 87 per cent of the territorial waters out to the 12-nautical-mile territorial limit.

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Habitats and species may disappear

Continued fragmentation and development of areas of natural habitat will have a negative impact on biological diversity. There is a risk that important habitat types will disappear altogether. Future generations may have more restricted opportunities for sustainable use of biological diversity and for experiencing Norway’s natural riches than we do today.

Growing pressure on the environment

General social trends and driving forces such as population growth, rising consumption, technological developments and trade are increasing the pressure on the natural environment. Large areas without infrastructure development are becoming fragmented, and important habitats for plants and animals are being built on, cultivated, drained or logged. Agriculture, forestry, tourism and road construction are some of the activities that change the natural environment most radically.

In Norway, every year the authorities responsible for managing protected areas assess current threats to the areas. Overgrowing of open habitats, invasive species and disturbance, followed by infrastructure development and wear and tear are considered to be the most severe threats.

More protected areas and better management

In Norway, the Nature Diversity Act is the most important instrument for expanding protection and ensuring more representative protection of the natural environment. It also provides a basis for improving management of the protected areas. 

Today more than 25 per cent of the protected areas have a management plan. The need for such plans varies from one type of area to another, depending particularly on whether an area requires active management to maintain its conservation value and on how heavily it is used.

Active management to maintain conservation values includes measures such as removal of invasive species and in some areas, where overgrowing is a threat to biodiversity, cutting, burning or removal of vegetation, for instance through livestock grazing. Waste collection is also important. Mapping of habitats and restoration, particularly of marsh and wetland areas, are also required.

Information boards and safety signs, as well as brochures, maps, information on the Internet, boundary markers and maintenance of paths and trails are vital to facilitate sustainable use of the protected areas.  

It has been estimated that strategic or operational management plans are needed for about 1500 protected areas in Norway

Work on protection plans

  • Almost all the proposals in the nationwide national park plan have been implemented. When this work is completed, a representative selection of mountain habitats will be protected. 
  • In 2003, the Storting gave its support to efforts to expand protection of forested areas. A long-term programme to encourage landowners to protect areas of forest on a voluntary basis is in progress. In addition, areas owned by the state and other authorities are being protected. At the beginning of 2016, about 2.9 per cent of the total area of productive forest was protected.
  • Most counties have adopted protection plans for mires, wetlands, deciduous broad-leaved forests, rich deciduous forests and important coastal sites for seabirds.
  • Work on the first phase of Norway’s marine protection plan is in progress. The goal is to safeguard a representative network of marine protected areas.

Norway still needs to expand protection for a number of habitat types, particularly in lowland areas and productive forest.

Protection is important, but we must do more

Protected areas play an important part in maintaining viable populations of plants and animals, but protection alone is not enough.

Even when all the current conservation plans have been implemented, some habitat types will not be adequately represented, and most of the country will not be protected under the terms of the Nature Diversity Act. The way we treat and manage the rest of the “ordinary” countryside will therefore be of vital importance for the maintenance of biological diversity.

3. Areas without major infrastructure development

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

Many people still think of Norway as a country with wide expanses of more or less undisturbed countryside. However, more intensive use of natural resources is putting growing pressure on these areas, and the area classified as “without major infrastructure development” is much smaller than only thirty or forty years ago.

Wind power plants and their infrastructure often come into conflict with undisturbed nature. From Vågsøy, Sogn og Fjordane county. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no.
At the beginning of the 1900s, about half of mainland Norway was wilderness-like. Today the figure is around twelve percent. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no

Shrinking proportion of Norway with no major infrastructure

Remaining areas without major infrastructure development in all parts of the country are shrinking and being split up, but losses have been greatest in South and Central Norway. Much of the remainder consists of areas above the treeline, glaciers and other unproductive areas.

By January 2013, about 44 per cent of mainland Norway's area (about 142 500 km2) was one kilometer or more away from major infrastructure develpoment.

The map shows areas without major infrastructure development and hydropower-related infrastructure (reservoirs, power plants, etc) around the Hardangervidda mountain plateau. You can zoom in or out to explore further.

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Barely 12 per cent of Norway is wilderness-like

There has been a reduction in the extent of wilderness-like areas (those lying furthest from infrastructure developments) since the beginning of the 20th century, when about half of Norway could be classified as wilderness-like. By January 2013, this figure had dropped to about 12 per cent, and to only 5 per cent in the southern half of the country.

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Areas classified as wilderness-like
Region Wilderness-like January 2013                                                                                Lost 2008-2012                      
                         		 Lost 1988-2012
                             
  km2 % km2 % km %
South and Central Norway 10377 4.9 77 0.7 579 5.3
North Norway 27154 24.1 106 0.4 1099 3.9
Total 37531 11.6 183 0.5 1678 4.3
Wilderness-like areas are defined as lying at least 5 km in a straight line from the nearest infrastructure development.

An important part of Norway’s natural heritage is lost

The remaining large undeveloped areas in Norway play a vital role for many species, and are important for nature's ability to adapt to climate change. Information about the development in areas without major infrastructure develpoment therefore also provides important information about the condition of Norway's nature.

In addition large undeveloped areas are important for outdoor recreation and provide opportunities to enjoy undisturbed nature. Such areas are an important part of the Norwegian natural heritage, and are in short supply both in Norway and internationally. They thus contain important qualities also with regard to future generations. 

Transport and energy sectors have the greatest impact

There is hardly anywhere in Norway that is truly untouched by human activity, but you can find everything from urban or intensively-farmed areas to wilderness-like forests and mountains. The most important causes of the loss of areas without major infrastructure in the period 2008–2012 were:

  • road construction, particularly forest roads
  • energy production and transport, including the construction of power lines

4. Nature Index

Published by the Norwegian Environment Agency

Norway uses the Nature Index to monitor the state of and trends for biodiversity in major ecosystems. Measured in this way, the pelagic ecosystems in both marine and coastal waters have shown an improvement since 1990. The situation has been stable in freshwater ecosystems. In terrestrial ecosystems, there has been a decline for wetlands and cultural landscapes (open lowland) and a slight improvement for forest, while the state of biodiversity in mountain ecosystems has fluctuated.

Looking towards the Rondane mountains. Wetlands like the area in the foreground support a variety of bird species. Photo: Bård Bredesen, Naturarkivet.no

Boreal rain forest, a type of spruce forest that grows in very humid conditions and is home to a number of rare and threatened lichen species. Such forests are under threat internationally and have a very restricted distribution in Norway. Photo: Sigve Reiso, Naturarkivet.no

Coastal heathlands are some of Norway's oldest cultural landscapes, formed 4000–5000 years ago. They are now under serious threat from modern agricultural techniques and afforestation. Photo: Kim Abel, Naturarkivet.no

Mountain scenery in Lomsdal-Visten national park, Nordland. Photo: Sigve Reiso, Naturarkivet.no

Positive trend for pelagic marine and coastal ecosystems; stable in freshwater

Nature Index values for marine and pelagic coastal ecosystems are relatively high. The overall trend for the period 1990–2014 has been positive, but there has been a small decline from 2010 to 2014. The situation has been fairly stable for both marine and coastal seabed ecosystems. The positive trend for biodiversity can probably be linked to improvements in fisheries management since 1990. For example, quotas are now based more on the precautionary principle, in order to ensure sustainable management of fish stocks. Nevertheless, Nature Index figures are lower for coastal seabed ecosystems than for other parts of the marine environment. This is related to the high level of human activity in coastal waters and nearby land areas.

Nature Index values for freshwater (rivers and lakes) are also high, and have been stable for the past 25 years. The values for Southern Norway and parts of Western Norway are somewhat lower than for other regions of the country. This is explained by the widespread and persistent acidification of river systems caused by long-range transport of pollutants.

Decline for wetland and mountain ecosystems

There has been a weak but steady decline in the state of biodiversity in wetlands in Norway since 1990. The same trend can be seen in all regions of the country, but the underlying causes vary from region to another. Physical alterations, more intensive agriculture, the abandonment of traditionally-farmed areas and climate change all have impacts on biodiversity in wetland areas.

Nature Index values for mountain ecosystems have fluctuated over the past 25 years, but the value for the whole country is now slightly lower than in 1990. Land-use change including road and railway construction and other infrastructure developments (hydropower, holiday cabins), tourism and climate change all have impacts on mountain biodiversity.

Low Nature Index value for forest, but positive trend

The Nature Index value for forest is low, indicating that biodiversity is lower than in forest ecosystems that are not influenced by human activities. The main explanation for this situation is that Norway's forests contain relatively little dead wood and a low proportion of old trees today. These are natural consequences of forestry operations. The weak positive trend since 1990 is mainly explained by an increase in the amount of dead wood, which has improved conditions for a wide range of insects and fungi that are dependent on dead wood habitats. In addition, there has been an increase in the numbers of forest-dwelling cervids.

Decline for cultural landscapes

Cultural landscapes (or open lowland in the Nature Index) in this context include all open areas below the treeline where the vegetation is natural or semi-natural. The state of biodiversity here is assessed using indicator species that are mainly associated with cultural landscapes formed through long periods of traditional management, including grazing, mowing and burning of the vegetation. The results show that there has been a negative trend for many years throughout the country. The overall Nature Index value for cultural landscape is now relatively low, mainly because traditional management techniques have been abandoned in most parts of the country.

Land-use change, pollution and climate change

The state of biodiversity in ecosystems is influenced by different kinds of human activities, pollution and climate change.

Coastal areas under great pressure

The high level of human activity in coastal waters and nearby land areas makes ecosystems vulnerable. Nutrients, particulate matter and pollutants from waste water treatment, agriculture and forestry, industry and other land-based sectors are carried out to sea by rivers. Fisheries, kelp trawling, aquaculture and shipping put pressure on coastal waters in various ways. Many fjords are recipients for pollution from industry and mining. In addition, sediments still store large quantities of hazardous chemicals released in the past, which are slowly released to the environment.

Land-use change and climate change affecting wetlands and mountains

For many years, large areas of mires and bogs were lost in Norway as they were converted to farmland or forest by ditching and draining. Wetlands are also vulnerable to land-use change, for example infrastructure development including housing and forest roads, golf courses, and peat extraction for horticultural uses. In the mountains, land-use changes and construction activities connected with the tourist industry, holiday cabins, hydropower developments and roads and railways are important pressures.

Climate change is also having impacts on biodiversity. For example, palsa mires are under threat in a number of regions. These are peat bogs dotted with hummocks, each with a core of ice, and rising temperatures are causing them to thaw. In the mountains, climate change may have a variety of impacts. It has already been shown that the breeding success of some bird species is declining with climate change. This appears to be explained by a mismatch between the onset of spring and the timing of egg laying and hatching.

Both wetland and mountain ecosystems have also been affected by the abandonment of traditional farming techniques. Open landscapes are becoming overgrown as a result, making conditions less suitable for species that prefer open areas with plenty of light.

Modern forestry puts pressure on forest biodiversity

People have been using Norway's forests for many hundreds of years. Today, forestry is considered to be the most important human pressure on forest ecosystems. Felling and modern forest management bring about drastic changes in environmental conditions in forests. After hundreds of years of large timber harvests, there is considerably less dead wood and fewer old trees than in natural forest, and this reduces the diversity of insects and fungi associated with such habitats.

Cultural landscapes becoming overgrown when not actively managed

The areas included in the category 'open lowland' in the Nature Index consist mainly of traditional types of cultural landscape that need to be maintained by active management, for example grazing or regular mowing or burning of the vegetation. There has been a dramatic shift from traditional farming techniques to intensive agriculture, including tilling and crop production using mineral fertilisers. At the same time, many areas of traditional pasture and meadow have been abandoned, and open landscapes such as coastal heathlands and herb-rich hay meadows are becoming overgrown with trees and shrubs.

The Nature Index provides an overview of ecosystems

Under international agreements, Norway has undertaken to obtain an overview of status and trends for biodiversity in major ecosystems. The Norwegian Nature Index is a tool for providing this information and for indicating whether Norway is making progress towards its goal of halting the loss of biodiversity.

Compilation of ecosystem data

The Nature Index is the most extensive compilation of information on Norway's biodiversity to date. It provides information on the state of biodiversity in seven major ecosystems: marine (pelagic and seabed), coastal (pelagic and seabed), freshwater, wetlands, forest, mountain and cultural landscape (or open lowland.

A set of indicators has been chosen to represent biodiversity in each of these ecosystems. The indicators include naturally occurring species, groups of species and other elements of ecosystems of importance for biodiversity (for example the presence of dead wood). In all, the Nature Index uses 301 indicators split between the different ecosystems.

The Nature Index uses a scale from 0 to 1, where 0 is very poor and 1 corresponds to the reference state, which in a natural ecosystem is defined to correspond to minimal disturbance from human activities. In other words, a Nature Index value tells us how the actual situation compares with the reference state which is based on the biodiversity expected in an undisturbed ecosystem. In semi-natural ecosystems, i.e. cultural landscapes, the reference state is defined to correspond to optimum biodiversity under a traditional management regime.